FROM MY MAKNEWS THREAD - SELDOMBALANCE
I found this absolutely important when I placed it on maknews, and its just as important here.
The following are extracts that touch upon as to why experts are divided in their theories, Also, the extracts touch upon language evolution.
Mario Alinei
Darwinism, traditional linguistics
and the new Palaeolithic Continuity Theory of Language Evolution
published in Gontier, Nathalie; Bendegem, Jean Paul van; Aerts, Diederik (Eds.),
Evolutionary Epistemology, Language and Culture. A non-adaptationist, systems
theoretical approach, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, pp. 121-147.
December 6th 2006
Extract of Summary
As the author has shown in previous work, although linguistics as a science was born in Darwin’s
century, Darwinism’s influence on it was superficial and produced the mystifying, but still current, view
that language is a living organism, and language change an organic law. Language is, instead, a social
artifact with an interface with nature, which is governed by the law of conservation and changes only
exceptionally. Since language is innate - as claimed by Chomsky and now demonstrated by natural
sciences - and Homo was thus born loquens, the evolution of language - and all world languages,
including Indo-European (IE) - must be mapped onto the entire course of human cultural evolution, in the
new framework provided by the Palaeolithic Continuity Theory (PCT).
The cultural context of the 19th century
First of all, it is necessary to remember that the 19th century was not dominated, culturally, by the emergence of evolutionary theory, but, on the contrary, by a very conservative, theological view of nature, according to which the Bible was the basic source for knowledge, and thus also for science.
As is known (e.g. Daniel 1962, Pinna 1992), Pre-Darwinian scholarship saw the duration of the earth and of life, as well as the beginning of human history, as set down by the Bible. And the text of the Bible, in its authorized version published in England in 1701, included the results of Dr. John Lightfoot’s and bishop James Ussher’s earlier calculations, according to the latter of which the universe was created by God on Sunday the 23rd of October 4004 b.C, beginning at sunset of the 22nd, Adam and Eve were driven out of Eden in the same year, on November 10, and Noah’s ark saved living beings from the Flood on May 5, 1491 b.C. Throughout the 19th century, and as late as the Victorian era - that is long after Darwin published his book - this was the current view about the origins of the universe. For the same reason, contemporary scholars reduced the entire human prehistory to the so-called Four Monarchies - Persian, Assyrian, Greek and Roman. And in the almost 6000 years between the present and the divine Creation in 4004 B.C., nothing short of a catastrophic, supernatural event could explain the process of geological accumulation and change. The biblical Flood provided an exceptionally effective example of such a catastrophe. In short, before the four monarchies there was only impenetrable fog, and before the year 4000 b.C. was the supernatural.
And it was precisely the strength of this belief that caused, in the 19th century, a sharp division between contemporary scholars: on the one hand the majority, called Catastrophists, who interpreted the terrestrial documentation in conformity with the Book of Genesis, saw the Flood as an example of supernatural catastrophes, and the biological past of the earth as a succession of supernatural catastrophes, each followed by new acts of supernatural creation. And on the other a minority of scholars, called Uniformitarianists, who studied the earth and life in terms of natural phenomena and natural laws operating in the present, and affirmed the natural character of the evolution, and the uninterrupted continuity of species from their origins to the present, in spite of their transformations.
In the last three decades, archaeological research has made quite a few revolutionary
advances, among which the most well-known is the much higher chronologies of European prehistory, obtained by radiocarbon and other innovative dating techniques. As far as Europe is concerned, the conclusion that interests us the most are:
(a) There is absolutely no trace of a gigantic warlike invasion, such as to have caused a
linguistic substitution on continental scale, as envisaged by the traditional IE (Indo-European) theory.
(b) All Neolithic cultures of Europe are either a direct continuation of Mesolithic ones, or
have been created by Mesolithic groups after their Neolithization by intrusive farmers from the Middle East.
(c) There is every possible evidence for demic and cultural continuity, from Upper
Paleolithic to the Metal Ages. Continuity is now universally considered the basic pattern of European prehistory. Even James Mallory, probably the last archaeologist who defends the IE invasion theory, has had to concede: "the archaeologists' easiest pursuit [is] the demonstration of relative continuity and absence of intrusion" (Mallory 1989: 81). All of this, again, represents a firm basis for the Short PCT.
In fact, for the specific problem of the origins of IE (Indo-European) languages Cavalli Sforza has first attempted to adjust his data to the traditional model of the warlike invasion theory, claiming that the two data converged, and later fully supported Renfrew’s model (Ammerman and Cavalli Sforza 1984), without realizing – apparently – that also the latter model, with its catastrophic scenario for both European and Asiatic people, clashes with his own claim of a close correspondence between the a real distribution of genetic markers and that of world linguistic phyla. Nevertheless, even Cavalli Sforza has recently had to surrender to the latest outcome of genetic research, i.e. that 80% of the genetic stock of Europeans goes back to Palaeolithic (e.g. Sykes 2001: 240 ff). As Bryan Sykes’ has recently commented: “The Neolithic farmers ha[ve] certainly been important; but they ha[ve] only contributed about one fifth of our genes. It [is] the hunters of the Palaeolithic that ha[ve]created the main body of modern
European gene pool” (Sykes 2001: 242). This conclusion represents, in my opinion, a firm basis for the Short PCT.
Short extract of conclusion
“…PCT can be regarded as successful, not only in its results but also in its methods of seeking evidence in archaeology, (palaeo) anthropology, historical sciences, and genetics and cognitive sciences…”
I found this absolutely important when I placed it on maknews, and its just as important here.
The following are extracts that touch upon as to why experts are divided in their theories, Also, the extracts touch upon language evolution.
Mario Alinei
Darwinism, traditional linguistics
and the new Palaeolithic Continuity Theory of Language Evolution
published in Gontier, Nathalie; Bendegem, Jean Paul van; Aerts, Diederik (Eds.),
Evolutionary Epistemology, Language and Culture. A non-adaptationist, systems
theoretical approach, Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, pp. 121-147.
December 6th 2006
Extract of Summary
As the author has shown in previous work, although linguistics as a science was born in Darwin’s
century, Darwinism’s influence on it was superficial and produced the mystifying, but still current, view
that language is a living organism, and language change an organic law. Language is, instead, a social
artifact with an interface with nature, which is governed by the law of conservation and changes only
exceptionally. Since language is innate - as claimed by Chomsky and now demonstrated by natural
sciences - and Homo was thus born loquens, the evolution of language - and all world languages,
including Indo-European (IE) - must be mapped onto the entire course of human cultural evolution, in the
new framework provided by the Palaeolithic Continuity Theory (PCT).
The cultural context of the 19th century
First of all, it is necessary to remember that the 19th century was not dominated, culturally, by the emergence of evolutionary theory, but, on the contrary, by a very conservative, theological view of nature, according to which the Bible was the basic source for knowledge, and thus also for science.
As is known (e.g. Daniel 1962, Pinna 1992), Pre-Darwinian scholarship saw the duration of the earth and of life, as well as the beginning of human history, as set down by the Bible. And the text of the Bible, in its authorized version published in England in 1701, included the results of Dr. John Lightfoot’s and bishop James Ussher’s earlier calculations, according to the latter of which the universe was created by God on Sunday the 23rd of October 4004 b.C, beginning at sunset of the 22nd, Adam and Eve were driven out of Eden in the same year, on November 10, and Noah’s ark saved living beings from the Flood on May 5, 1491 b.C. Throughout the 19th century, and as late as the Victorian era - that is long after Darwin published his book - this was the current view about the origins of the universe. For the same reason, contemporary scholars reduced the entire human prehistory to the so-called Four Monarchies - Persian, Assyrian, Greek and Roman. And in the almost 6000 years between the present and the divine Creation in 4004 B.C., nothing short of a catastrophic, supernatural event could explain the process of geological accumulation and change. The biblical Flood provided an exceptionally effective example of such a catastrophe. In short, before the four monarchies there was only impenetrable fog, and before the year 4000 b.C. was the supernatural.
And it was precisely the strength of this belief that caused, in the 19th century, a sharp division between contemporary scholars: on the one hand the majority, called Catastrophists, who interpreted the terrestrial documentation in conformity with the Book of Genesis, saw the Flood as an example of supernatural catastrophes, and the biological past of the earth as a succession of supernatural catastrophes, each followed by new acts of supernatural creation. And on the other a minority of scholars, called Uniformitarianists, who studied the earth and life in terms of natural phenomena and natural laws operating in the present, and affirmed the natural character of the evolution, and the uninterrupted continuity of species from their origins to the present, in spite of their transformations.
In the last three decades, archaeological research has made quite a few revolutionary
advances, among which the most well-known is the much higher chronologies of European prehistory, obtained by radiocarbon and other innovative dating techniques. As far as Europe is concerned, the conclusion that interests us the most are:
(a) There is absolutely no trace of a gigantic warlike invasion, such as to have caused a
linguistic substitution on continental scale, as envisaged by the traditional IE (Indo-European) theory.
(b) All Neolithic cultures of Europe are either a direct continuation of Mesolithic ones, or
have been created by Mesolithic groups after their Neolithization by intrusive farmers from the Middle East.
(c) There is every possible evidence for demic and cultural continuity, from Upper
Paleolithic to the Metal Ages. Continuity is now universally considered the basic pattern of European prehistory. Even James Mallory, probably the last archaeologist who defends the IE invasion theory, has had to concede: "the archaeologists' easiest pursuit [is] the demonstration of relative continuity and absence of intrusion" (Mallory 1989: 81). All of this, again, represents a firm basis for the Short PCT.
In fact, for the specific problem of the origins of IE (Indo-European) languages Cavalli Sforza has first attempted to adjust his data to the traditional model of the warlike invasion theory, claiming that the two data converged, and later fully supported Renfrew’s model (Ammerman and Cavalli Sforza 1984), without realizing – apparently – that also the latter model, with its catastrophic scenario for both European and Asiatic people, clashes with his own claim of a close correspondence between the a real distribution of genetic markers and that of world linguistic phyla. Nevertheless, even Cavalli Sforza has recently had to surrender to the latest outcome of genetic research, i.e. that 80% of the genetic stock of Europeans goes back to Palaeolithic (e.g. Sykes 2001: 240 ff). As Bryan Sykes’ has recently commented: “The Neolithic farmers ha[ve] certainly been important; but they ha[ve] only contributed about one fifth of our genes. It [is] the hunters of the Palaeolithic that ha[ve]created the main body of modern
European gene pool” (Sykes 2001: 242). This conclusion represents, in my opinion, a firm basis for the Short PCT.
Short extract of conclusion
“…PCT can be regarded as successful, not only in its results but also in its methods of seeking evidence in archaeology, (palaeo) anthropology, historical sciences, and genetics and cognitive sciences…”
Comment